Ancient warfare has been heavily analyzed by scholars, and it’s made waves in movies like 300 (2006). However, popular culture and scholarly studies tend to focus primarily on the Spartan military. This focus largely comes from the training of young boys in Ancient Sparta (the agoge), which shaped them into fighters.
While Sparta’s seen as the military standard in the ancient world, the Athenian military also made groundbreaking innovations, and Athenian Hoplites were no slouches. Let’s analyze and compare the different aspects of the Athenian military, to determine which area was most effective in classical warfare.
Athenian Hoplite Phalanx System
The principal component of any Greek military system was the Hoplite Phalanx. Hoplites were armored infantrymen who fought in a dense linear formation. Typically, they were armed with a long spear, a short sword and a circular bronze shield, and they were further protected (if they could afford them) by a bronze helmet, bronze breastplate, greaves for their legs and ankle guards.
Classical Greek warfare consisted primarily of the clash of Hoplite phalanxes from different city-states in conflict, and the basic formation of the Hoplite phalanx seems to be consistent throughout other city-states. Hoplites were organized into regiments (lokhoi) that were often several hundred strong and fought in ranks typically of eight or more men deep. There’s better morale in a deeper formation; Hoplites felt safer with comrades around them, which, in turn, improved the overall cohesion of the army.
Athenian hoplites were so close to each other in their formation that half the shield of one soldier protected his neighbor on the left. Typically, the Phalanx advanced toward their enemy at a walk, accompanied by rhythmic music. The fighting happened in very close quarters and only ended when one side broke rank.
Athens had a system of compulsory military service for 18-20 year olds, but, during times of war and conflict, any male citizen up to the age of 60 could be called up for active service. This meant Athenian Hoplites, which formed the largest part of the Athenian military, weren’t professional soldiers and lacked military experience.
Battle of Marathon
Athenian Hoplites were essential in obtaining a Greek victory over the Persians during the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. The Greek Army, led by Callimachus and Miltiades, fielded around 9,000 hoplites. The Persians’ tactics in this battle consisted of archers followed by a cavalry charge.
The Battle of Marathon was long, but the Hoplites gained the upper hand on the Persians and eventually pushed them back, breaking enemy lines. As the Persians attempted to retreat, the left and right sides of the Athenian Phalanx closed in on the soldiers and attacked, inflicting heavy casualties.
Athenian Ground Military
The Athenian Army rapidly expanded throughout the sixth century BC, which promoted not just the inclusion of more Hoplites, but also an increase in men occupying other ground military positions. Throughout the fifth and sixth centuries BC, the ground military saw increased use of light infantry to support and be a substitute for Athenian Hoplites.
Richer Athenians were able to enrol in the Athenian cavalry (hippeis), which was slow to develop because most of the elites who were able to breed horses did so for chariot racing, instead of the military. However, by the time the Persian Wars broke out, an Athenian cavalry had been established.
During the Peloponnesian War, Athens possessed the largest cavalry force, at 1,000 mounted troops. However, the cavalry never really emerged as a potent threat during Classical times, largely due to the rugged Greek terrain. These units required smooth, level ground, and their horses needed large quantities of food and water – Greece’s landscape lacked these important necessities.
Other types of infantry in ancient Greece
Other types of infantrymen, including the peltast, were involved in Athenian ground military conflicts. The peltast were typically armed with a javelin, carried a light shield and wore no armor. As such, they were much more mobile in the field when compared to the Athenian Hoplites.
The Athenian peltast was especially effective in the Battle of Sphacteria in 425 BC, against the Spartans. At least 800 Athenian peltasts were present, as were about 800 Hoplites fighting on the ground. It was the use of javelins by the peltasts that led the opposing troops to surrender.
Another light infantry innovation by the Athenian ground military was the implementation of an archer corps, which was created in the late 480s BC. Greek historian Thucydides wrote that, at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, Athens had 1,600 archers in its military force, as well as an unknown number of horse archers.
Athenian Navy
The jewel of the Athenian Armed Forces was their navy. In the sixth century BC, the Athenian fleet grew from about 60 ships to around 400, and it was primarily made up of ancient vessels called triremes. These wooden warships carried about 170 rowers, who operated three banks of oars. At its peak, the Athenian Navy employed nearly 80,000 men to row all 400 vessels.
The Athenian Navy was virtually non-existent until slightly before the Second Persian Invasion. Athenian politician Themistocles was influential in the development of the Athenian fleet. Having predicted a second Persian invasion, he felt the Athenians could exploit the weakest part of the Persian military: its navy. In 483 BC, he convinced Athenians to build a fleet of 200 triremes, all of which proved essential in defeating the Persians.
The Battle of Salamis in 480 BC proved the importance and might of the Athenian Navy. The Greek fleet, under the leadership of Themistocles, defeated the much larger Persian naval fleet. By then, the Persian King Xerxes was in control of a navy of about 800 galleys. In comparison, the Greeks possessed a fleet of only about 370 triremes.
Themistocles lured the Persian fleet into the narrow waters of the strait at Salamis, where the massive ships had a difficult time maneuvering. This strategic thinking allowed the Greek triremes to attack the Persians by ramming into them, sinking much of the vessels – the Greeks sank about 300 Persian ships, while only losing 40 of their own.
Athenian naval techniques
Typically, the strategy the Athenian Navy used was ramming. During at-sea engagements, a trireme captain would frequently use the front of his ship to ram into smaller boats to sink them. Commanders would also arrange their fleets in a long front, so it was difficult for any enemy to pass behind the wall of Athenian ships.
Triremes often carried Athenian Hoplites and archers to distant locations. Sometimes, a trireme would move next to an enemy ship, so an Athenian boarding party, comprised of Hoplites, could board, raid and capture the opposing vessel.
However, triremes weren’t without their faults. There were no sleeping areas for the crew, so the ships were required to be dry-docked each night. Even if there were sleeping quarters onboard, they still needed to be pulled from the water each night, since they’d quickly become waterlogged if they were left at sea for too long.
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The Athenian Navy wouldn’t stay on top of the ancient world forever. The fleet was destroyed during the Peloponnesian War – in particular, during the Battle of Aegospotami in 405 BC. The Spartan naval fleet, under the command of Lysander, fully destroyed the sea force, effectively ending both the Peloponnesian War and Athenian sea supremacy.
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